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+.\"	$NetBSD: makefs.8,v 1.75 2026/03/10 20:17:01 andvar Exp $
+.\"
+.\" Copyright (c) 2001-2003 Wasabi Systems, Inc.
+.\" All rights reserved.
+.\"
+.\" Written by Luke Mewburn for Wasabi Systems, Inc.
+.\"
+.\" Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+.\" modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+.\" are met:
+.\" 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+.\"    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+.\" 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+.\"    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+.\"    documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+.\" 3. All advertising materials mentioning features or use of this software
+.\"    must display the following acknowledgement:
+.\"      This product includes software developed for the NetBSD Project by
+.\"      Wasabi Systems, Inc.
+.\" 4. The name of Wasabi Systems, Inc. may not be used to endorse
+.\"    or promote products derived from this software without specific prior
+.\"    written permission.
+.\"
+.\" THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY WASABI SYSTEMS, INC. ``AS IS'' AND
+.\" ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED
+.\" TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR
+.\" PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL WASABI SYSTEMS, INC
+.\" BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR
+.\" CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF
+.\" SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS
+.\" INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN
+.\" CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE)
+.\" ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE
+.\" POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+.\"
+.Dd January 10, 2026
+.Dt MAKEFS 8
+.Os
+.Sh NAME
+.Nm makefs
+.Nd create a file system image from a directory tree
+.Sh SYNOPSIS
+.Nm
+.Op Fl LrxZ
+.Op Fl B Ar endian
+.Op Fl b Ar free-blocks
+.Op Fl d Ar debug-mask
+.Op Fl F Ar mtree-specfile
+.Op Fl f Ar free-files
+.Op Fl M Ar minimum-size
+.Op Fl m Ar maximum-size
+.Op Fl N Ar userdb-dir
+.Op Fl O Ar offset
+.Op Fl o Ar fs-options
+.Op Fl S Ar sector-size
+.Op Fl s Ar image-size
+.Op Fl T Ar timestamp
+.Op Fl t Ar fs-type
+.Ar image-file
+.Ar directory
+.Op Ar extra-directory ...
+.Sh DESCRIPTION
+The utility
+.Nm
+creates a file system image into
+.Ar image-file
+from the directory tree
+.Ar directory .
+If any optional directory trees are passed in the
+.Ar extra-directory
+arguments, then the directory tree of each argument will be merged
+into the
+.Ar directory
+first before creating
+.Ar image-file .
+No special devices or privileges are required to perform this task.
+.Pp
+The options are as follows:
+.Bl -tag -width flag
+.It Fl B Ar endian
+Set the byte order of the image to
+.Ar endian .
+Valid byte orders are
+.Ql 4321 ,
+.Ql big ,
+or
+.Ql be
+for big endian, and
+.Ql 1234 ,
+.Ql little ,
+or
+.Ql le
+for little endian.
+Some file systems may have a fixed byte order; in those cases this
+argument will be ignored.
+.It Fl b Ar free-blocks
+Ensure that a minimum of
+.Ar free-blocks
+free blocks exist in the image.
+An optional
+.Ql %
+suffix may be provided to indicate that
+.Ar free-blocks
+indicates a percentage of the calculated image size.
+.It Fl d Ar debug-mask | comma-separated-debug-option
+Enable various levels of debugging, depending upon which bits are
+set in
+.Ar debug-mask .
+The mask can also be set by specifying a comma separated list of debugging
+options.
+These are:
+.Bl -tag -width X -offset indent -compact
+.It Ar debug_time
+Print the time it takes to perform each step.
+.It Ar debug_walk_dir
+Print each directory as it gets processed.
+.It Ar debug_walk_dir_node
+Print each file as it gets processed.
+.It Ar debug_walk_dir_linkcheck
+Print file information for files that have a link count > 1.
+.It Ar debug_dump_fsnodes
+Dump information about the filesystem nodes.
+.It Ar debug_dump_fsnodes_verbose
+Enable more detail if
+.Dv debug_dump_fsnodes
+is enabled.
+.It Ar debug_fs_parse_opts
+Print debugging information about specific filesystem option parsing.
+.It Ar debug_fs_makefs
+Print nodes as they are created and enable buffer consistency checks.
+.It Ar debug_fs_validate
+Enable file-system specific validation (ffs only).
+.It Ar debug_fs_create_image
+Print image file creation stats (ffs only).
+.It Ar debug_fs_size_dir
+Print directory size information (ffs only).
+.It Ar debug_fs_size_dir_node
+Print directory size information per node (ffs only).
+.It Ar debug_fs_size_dir_add_dirent
+Print directory size information as entries are added (ffs only).
+.It Ar debug_fs_populate
+Print information at each directory population pass (ffs only).
+.It Ar debug_fs_populate_dirbuf
+Dump the directory buffer (ffs only).
+.It Ar debug_fs_populate_node
+Print information about each file during directory population (ffs only).
+.It Ar debug_fs_write_file
+Print buffer information when writing files (ffs only).
+.It Ar debug_fs_write_file_block
+Print block information when writing files (ffs only).
+.It Ar debug_fs_make_dirbuf
+Print directory buffer information (ffs only).
+.It Ar debug_fs_write_inode
+Print inode information (ffs only).
+.It Ar debug_buf_bread
+Print block buffer information (ffs only).
+.It Ar debug_buf_bwrite
+Print block write information (ffs only).
+.It Ar debug_buf_getblk
+Print block allocation information (ffs only).
+.It Ar debug_apply_specfile
+Print information about each directory in the specfile.
+.It Ar debug_apply_specentry
+Print information about each entry in the specfile.
+.It Ar debug_apply_speconly
+Debug the
+.Fl x
+special file exclusion.
+.El
+.It Fl F Ar mtree-specfile
+Use
+.Ar mtree-specfile
+as an
+.Xr mtree 8
+.Sq specfile
+specification.
+.Pp
+If a specfile entry exists in the underlying file system, its
+permissions and modification time will be used unless specifically
+overridden by the specfile.
+An error will be raised if the type of entry in the specfile
+conflicts with that of an existing entry.
+.Pp
+In the opposite case (where a specfile entry does not have an entry
+in the underlying file system) the following occurs:
+If the specfile entry is marked
+.Sy optional ,
+the specfile entry is ignored.
+Otherwise, the entry will be created in the image, and it is
+necessary to specify at least the following parameters in the
+specfile:
+.Sy type ,
+.Sy mode ,
+.Sy gname ,
+or
+.Sy gid ,
+and
+.Sy uname
+or
+.Sy uid ,
+.Sy device
+(in the case of block or character devices), and
+.Sy link
+(in the case of symbolic links).
+If
+.Sy time
+isn't provided, the current time will be used.
+If
+.Sy flags
+isn't provided, the current file flags will be used.
+Missing regular file entries will be created as zero-length files.
+.It Fl f Ar free-files
+Ensure that a minimum of
+.Ar free-files
+free files (inodes) exist in the image.
+An optional
+.Ql %
+suffix may be provided to indicate that
+.Ar free-files
+indicates a percentage of the calculated image size.
+.It Fl L
+All symbolic links are followed.
+.It Fl M Ar minimum-size
+Set the minimum size of the file system image to
+.Ar minimum-size .
+.It Fl m Ar maximum-size
+Set the maximum size of the file system image to
+.Ar maximum-size .
+An error will be raised if the target file system needs to be larger
+than this to accommodate the provided directory tree.
+.It Fl N Ar userdb-dir
+Use the user database text file
+.Pa master.passwd
+and group database text file
+.Pa group
+from
+.Ar userdb-dir ,
+rather than using the results from the system's
+.Xr getpwnam 3
+and
+.Xr getgrnam 3
+(and related) library calls.
+.It Fl O Ar offset
+Instead of creating the file system at the beginning of the file, start
+at offset.
+Valid only for
+.Sy ffs
+and
+.Sy msdos .
+.It Fl o Ar fs-options
+Set file system specific options.
+.Ar fs-options
+is a comma separated list of options.
+Valid file system specific options are detailed below.
+.It Fl r
+When merging multiple directories replace duplicate files with the last found.
+.It Fl S Ar sector-size
+Set the file system sector size to
+.Ar sector-size .
+Defaults to 512 for most file systems, but is 2048 for
+.Sy cd9660
+and
+.Sy udf
+for CD/DVD/BD optical media types.
+.It Fl s Ar image-size
+Set the size of the file system image to
+.Ar image-size .
+This is equivalent of setting both the minimum
+.Fl ( M )
+and the maximum
+.Fl ( m )
+sizes to
+.Ar image-size .
+For
+.Sy ffs
+and
+.Sy msdos
+the
+.Ar offset
+is not included on that size.
+.It Fl T Ar timestamp
+Specify a timestamp to be set for all file system files and directories
+created so that repeatable builds are possible.
+The
+.Ar timestamp
+can be a
+.Pa pathname ,
+where the timestamps are derived from that file, a parseable date
+for
+.Xr parsedate 3
+(this option is not yet available in the tools build), or an integer
+value interpreted as the number of seconds from the Epoch.
+Note that timestamps specified in an
+.Xr mtree 5
+spec file, override the default timestamp.
+When this option is enabled, file systems that regularly use
+.Xr localtime 3
+to convert times to the native format (such as udf and cd9660), use
+.Xr gmtime 3
+instead with the specified timestamps so that they are immune to
+timezone changes and get consistent timestamps.
+.It Fl t Ar fs-type
+Create an
+.Ar fs-type
+file system image.
+The following file system types are supported:
+.Bl -tag -width cd9660 -offset indent
+.It Sy cd9660
+ISO 9660 file system.
+.It Sy chfs
+Chip flash file system.
+.It Sy ffs
+BSD fast file system (default).
+.It Sy msdos
+FAT12, FAT16, or FAT32 file system.
+.It Sy udf
+ISO/Ecma UDF file system.
+.It Sy v7fs
+7th Edition(V7) file system.
+.El
+.It Fl x
+Exclude file system nodes not explicitly listed in the specfile.
+Repeating this flag causes
+.Nm
+to print a warning for each missing system nodes and exit with an error code
+if there are any missing.
+.It Fl Z
+Create a sparse file for
+.Sy ffs .
+This is useful for virtual machine images.
+.El
+.Pp
+Where sizes are specified, a decimal number of bytes is expected.
+Two or more numbers may be separated by an
+.Sq x
+to indicate a product.
+Each number may have one of the following optional suffixes:
+.Bl -tag -width 3n -offset indent -compact
+.It b
+Block; multiply by 512
+.It k
+Kibi; multiply by 1024 (1 KiB)
+.It m
+Mebi; multiply by 1048576 (1 MiB)
+.It g
+Gibi; multiply by 1073741824 (1 GiB)
+.It t
+Tebi; multiply by 1099511627776 (1 TiB)
+.It w
+Word; multiply by the number of bytes in an integer
+.El
+.\"
+.\"
+.Ss FFS-specific options
+.Sy ffs
+images have ffs-specific optional parameters that may be provided.
+Each of the options consists of a keyword, an equal sign
+.Pq Ql = ,
+and a value.
+The following keywords are supported:
+.Pp
+.Bl -tag -width optimization -offset indent -compact
+.It Sy avgfilesize
+Expected average file size.
+.It Sy avgfpdir
+Expected number of files per directory.
+.It Sy bsize
+Block size.
+.It Sy density
+Bytes per inode.
+.It Sy extattr
+UFS2 with extended attributes.
+.It Sy extent
+Maximum extent size.
+.It Sy fsize
+Fragment size.
+.It Sy label
+Label name of the image.
+.It Sy maxbpcg
+Maximum total number of blocks in a cylinder group.
+.It Sy maxbpg
+Maximum blocks per file in a cylinder group.
+.It Sy minfree
+Minimum % free.
+.It Sy optimization
+Optimization preference; one of
+.Ql space
+or
+.Ql time .
+.It Sy version
+File system format version, compatible with the
+.Fl O
+option of
+.Xr newfs 8 .
+0 for FFSv1 with the old level 1 format.
+1 for FFSv1 (default, level 4), and
+2 for FFSv2 (UFS2).
+.El
+.Ss CD9660-specific options
+.Sy cd9660
+images have ISO9660-specific optional parameters that may be
+provided.
+The arguments consist of a keyword and, optionally, an equal sign
+.Pq Ql = ,
+and a value.
+The following keywords are supported:
+.Pp
+.Bl -tag -width omit-trailing-period -offset indent -compact
+.It Sy allow-deep-trees
+Allow the directory structure to exceed the maximum specified in
+the spec.
+.\" .It Sy allow-illegal-chars
+.\" Unknown
+.\" .It Sy allow-lowercase
+.\" Unknown
+.It Sy allow-max-name
+Allow 37 instead of 33 characters for filenames by omitting the
+version ID.
+.It Sy allow-multidot
+Allow multiple dots in a filename.
+.It Sy applicationid
+Application ID of the image.
+.It Sy archimedes
+Use the
+.Ql ARCHIMEDES
+extension to encode
+.Tn RISC OS
+metadata.
+.It Sy boot-load-segment
+Set load segment for the boot image.
+.It Sy bootimage
+Filename of a boot image in the format
+.Dq sysid;filename ,
+where
+.Dq sysid
+is one of
+.Ql efi ,
+.Ql i386 ,
+.Ql mac68k ,
+.Ql macppc ,
+or
+.Ql powerpc .
+.It Sy chrp-boot
+Write an MBR partition table to the image to allow older CHRP hardware to
+boot.
+.It Sy generic-bootimage
+Load a generic boot image into the first 32K of the cd9660 image.
+.It Sy hard-disk-boot
+Boot image is a hard disk image.
+.It Sy keep-bad-images
+Don't throw away images whose write was aborted due to an error.
+For debugging purposes.
+.It Sy label
+Label name of the image.
+.It Sy no-boot
+Boot image is not bootable.
+.It Sy no-emul-boot
+Boot image is a
+.Dq no emulation
+ElTorito image.
+.It Sy no-trailing-padding
+Do not pad the image (apparently Linux needs the padding).
+.\" .It Sy omit-trailing-period
+.\" Unknown
+.It Sy platformid
+Set platform ID of section header entry of the boot image.
+.It Sy preparer
+Preparer ID of the image.
+.It Sy publisher
+Publisher ID of the image.
+.It Sy rockridge
+Use RockRidge extensions (for longer filenames, etc.).
+.It Sy volumeid
+Volume set identifier of the image.
+.El
+.Ss CHFS-specific options
+.Sy chfs
+images have chfs-specific optional parameters that may be provided.
+Each of the options consists of a keyword, an equal sign
+.Pq Ql = ,
+and a value.
+The following keywords are supported:
+.Pp
+.Bl -tag -width optimization -offset indent -compact
+.It Sy pagesize
+Pagesize.
+.It Sy erasesize
+Erase block size of the media.
+.It Sy mediatype
+Type of the media.
+NOR: 0 or NAND: 1.
+.El
+.Ss msdos-specific options
+.Sy msdos
+images have MS-DOS-specific optional parameters that may be
+provided.
+The arguments consist of a keyword, an equal sign
+.Pq Ql = ,
+and a value.
+The following keywords are supported (see
+.Xr newfs_msdos 8
+for more details):
+.Pp
+.Bl -tag -width omit-trailing-period -offset indent -compact
+.It Cm backup_sector
+Location of the backup boot sector.
+.It Cm block_size
+Block size.
+.It Cm bootstrap
+Bootstrap file.
+.It Cm bytes_per_sector
+Bytes per sector.
+.It Cm create_size
+Create file size.
+.It Cm directory_entries
+Directory entries.
+.It Cm drive_heads
+Drive heads.
+.It Cm fat_type
+FAT type (12, 16, or 32).
+.It Cm floppy
+Preset drive parameters for standard format floppy disks
+(160, 180, 320, 360, 640, 720, 1200, 1232, 1440, or 2880).
+.It Cm hidden_sectors
+Hidden sectors.
+.It Cm info_sector
+Location of the info sector.
+.It Cm media_descriptor
+Media descriptor.
+.It Cm num_FAT
+Number of FATs.
+.It Cm OEM_string
+OEM string.
+.It Cm offset
+Offset in device.
+.It Cm reserved_sectors
+Reserved sectors.
+.It Cm sectors_per_cluster
+Sectors per cluster.
+.It Cm sectors_per_fat
+Sectors per FAT.
+.It Cm sectors_per_track
+Sectors per track.
+.It Cm size
+File System size.
+.It Cm volume_id
+Volume ID.
+.It Cm volume_label
+Volume Label.
+.El
+.Ss V7FS-specific options
+The following keywords are supported:
+.Pp
+.Bl -tag -width optimization -offset indent -compact
+.It Sy pdp
+PDP endian.
+.It Sy progress
+Display a progress meter for the file system construction and file
+population.
+.El
+.Ss UDF-specific options
+.Nm
+supports besides writing to image files also direct formatting of disc
+partitions and optical media.
+Optical media will auto configure settings.
+The following udf-specific optional parameters may be provided.
+Each of the options consists of a keyword, an equal sign
+.Pq Ql = ,
+and a value.
+The following keywords are supported:
+.Pp
+.Bl -tag -width optimization -offset indent -compact
+.It Sy disctype
+This can have the following values:
+.Bl -tag -width cdromXdvdromXbdromXXX -compact
+.It Sy cdrom , Sy dvdrom , Sy bdrom
+create a read-only fs
+.It Sy dvdram , Sy bdre , Sy disk
+create a rewritable fs without sparing for defective sectors
+.It Sy cdr , Sy dvdr , Sy bdr
+create a rewritable fs on once recordable media using a VAT
+.It Sy cdrw , Sy dvdrw
+create a rewritable fs with sparing for defective sectors
+.El
+The sectorsize is set for the selected media and the default maximum disc size
+is assumed unless overridden.
+For CD-ROM, DVD-ROM and BD-ROM images, the disc
+size is the minimum size needed.
+Note that the size estimator can
+under-estimate in some cases; specify extra free blocks if encountering this.
+.It Sy loglabel
+Set the logical volume label of the disc to the specified argument.
+.It Sy discid
+Set the physical volume label of the disc to the specified argument.
+Prepend the physical volume label with a volumeset label separated
+with a ':' if wanted.
+For strict conformance and interchange, don't set the volumeset label
+manually unless it has an unique hex number in the first 8 character
+positions.
+.It Sy minver
+Set the minimum UDF version to be used.
+Choose UDF version numbers from 0x102, 0x150, 0x200, 0x201, and 0x250.
+Version 0x260 is currently not supported
+in
+.Nm .
+.It Sy maxver
+Set the maximum UDF version to be used.
+Choose UDF version numbers from 0x102, 0x150, 0x200, 0x201, and 0x250.
+Version 0x260 is currently not supported
+in
+.Nm .
+.It Sy metaperc
+Set the minimum amount of free metadata space.
+This is only applicable on UDF 0x250 on rewritable media.
+.It Sy checksurface
+Check the surface of non error-free rewritable media for remapping.
+Note this is a destructive test and can take quite a while!
+.It Sy forceformat
+Force formatting on non-empty recordable media.
+.El
+.Sh SEE ALSO
+.Xr strsuftoll 3 ,
+.Xr installboot 8 ,
+.Xr mtree 8 ,
+.Xr newfs 8
+.Sh HISTORY
+The
+.Nm
+utility appeared in
+.Nx 1.6 .
+.Sh AUTHORS
+.An Luke Mewburn
+.Aq lukem@NetBSD.org
+(original program),
+.An Daniel Watt ,
+.An Walter Deignan ,
+.An Ryan Gabrys ,
+.An Alan Perez-Rathke ,
+.An Ram Vedam
+(cd9660 support),
+.An UCHIYAMA Yasushi
+(v7fs support),
+.An Tamas Toth
+(chfs support),
+.An Christos Zoulas
+(msdos support),
+.An Reinoud Zandijk
+(udf support).