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+.\"	$NetBSD: fs.5,v 1.18 2010/03/22 18:58:32 joerg Exp $
+.\"
+.\" Copyright (c) 1983, 1991, 1993
+.\"	The Regents of the University of California.  All rights reserved.
+.\"
+.\" Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+.\" modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+.\" are met:
+.\" 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+.\"    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+.\" 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+.\"    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+.\"    documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+.\" 3. Neither the name of the University nor the names of its contributors
+.\"    may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software
+.\"    without specific prior written permission.
+.\"
+.\" THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE REGENTS AND CONTRIBUTORS ``AS IS'' AND
+.\" ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
+.\" IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
+.\" ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE REGENTS OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
+.\" FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
+.\" DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
+.\" OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
+.\" HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
+.\" LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
+.\" OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
+.\" SUCH DAMAGE.
+.\"
+.\"     @(#)fs.5	8.2 (Berkeley) 4/19/94
+.\"
+.Dd July 27, 2001
+.Dt FS 5
+.Os
+.Sh NAME
+.Nm fs ,
+.Nm inode
+.Nd format of file system volume
+.Sh SYNOPSIS
+.In sys/param.h
+.In ufs/ffs/fs.h
+.In ufs/ufs/inode.h
+.Sh DESCRIPTION
+The files
+.In ufs/ffs/fs.h
+and
+.In ufs/ufs/inode.h
+declare several structures and define variables and macros
+which are used to create and manage the underlying format of
+file system objects on random access devices (disks).
+.Pp
+The block size and number of blocks which
+comprise a file system are parameters of the file system.
+Sectors beginning at
+.Dv BBLOCK
+and continuing for
+.Dv BBSIZE
+are used
+for a disklabel and for some hardware primary
+and secondary bootstrapping programs.
+.Pp
+The actual file system begins at sector
+.Dv SBLOCK
+with the
+.Em super-block
+that is of size
+.Dv SBSIZE .
+The following structure described the super-block and is
+from the file
+.In ufs/ffs/fs.h :
+.Bd -literal
+#define	FS_MAGIC 0x011954
+struct fs {
+	int32_t	 fs_firstfield;	/* historic file system linked list, */
+	int32_t	 fs_unused_1;	/*     used for incore super blocks */
+	int32_t  fs_sblkno;	/* addr of super-block in filesys */
+	int32_t  fs_cblkno;	/* offset of cyl-block in filesys */
+	int32_t  fs_iblkno;	/* offset of inode-blocks in filesys */
+	int32_t  fs_dblkno;	/* offset of first data after cg */
+	int32_t	 fs_old_cgoffset; /* cylinder group offset in cylinder */
+	int32_t	 fs_old_cgmask;	  /* used to calc mod fs_ntrak */
+	int32_t	 fs_old_time;	/* last time written */
+	int32_t	 fs_old_size;	/* number of blocks in fs */
+	int32_t	 fs_old_dsize;	/* number of data blocks in fs */
+	int32_t	 fs_ncg;	/* number of cylinder groups */
+	int32_t	 fs_bsize;	/* size of basic blocks in fs */
+	int32_t	 fs_fsize;	/* size of frag blocks in fs */
+	int32_t	 fs_frag;	/* number of frags in a block in fs */
+/* these are configuration parameters */
+	int32_t	 fs_minfree;	/* minimum percentage of free blocks */
+	int32_t	 fs_old_rotdelay; /* num of ms for optimal next block */
+	int32_t	 fs_old_rps;	/* disk revolutions per second */
+/* these fields can be computed from the others */
+	int32_t	 fs_bmask;	/* ``blkoff'' calc of blk offsets */
+	int32_t	 fs_fmask;	/* ``fragoff'' calc of frag offsets */
+	int32_t	 fs_bshift;	/* ``lblkno'' calc of logical blkno */
+	int32_t	 fs_fshift;	/* ``numfrags'' calc number of frags */
+/* these are configuration parameters */
+	int32_t	 fs_maxcontig;	/* max number of contiguous blks */
+	int32_t	 fs_maxbpg;	/* max number of blks per cyl group */
+/* these fields can be computed from the others */
+	int32_t	 fs_fragshift;	/* block to frag shift */
+	int32_t	 fs_fsbtodb;	/* fsbtodb and dbtofsb shift constant */
+	int32_t	 fs_sbsize;	/* actual size of super block */
+	int32_t	 fs_spare1[2];	/* old fs_csmask */
+				/* old fs_csshift */
+	int32_t	 fs_nindir;	/* value of NINDIR */
+	int32_t	 fs_inopb;	/* value of INOPB */
+	int32_t	 fs_old_nspf;	/* value of NSPF */
+/* yet another configuration parameter */
+	int32_t	 fs_optim;	/* optimization preference, see below */
+/* these fields are derived from the hardware */
+	int32_t	 fs_old_npsect;	/* # sectors/track including spares */
+	int32_t	 fs_old_interleave;	/* hardware sector interleave */
+	int32_t	 fs_old_trackskew;	/* sector 0 skew, per track */
+/* fs_id takes the space of unused fs_headswitch and fs_trkseek fields */
+	int32_t	 fs_id[2];	/* unique file system id */
+/* sizes determined by number of cylinder groups and their sizes */
+	int32_t  fs_old_csaddr;	/* blk addr of cyl grp summary area */
+	int32_t	 fs_cssize;	/* size of cyl grp summary area */
+	int32_t	 fs_cgsize;	/* cylinder group size */
+/* these fields are derived from the hardware */
+	int32_t	 fs_spare2;	/* old fs_ntrak */
+	int32_t	 fs_old_nsect;	/* sectors per track */
+	int32_t	 fs_old_spc;	/* sectors per cylinder */
+	int32_t	 fs_old_ncyl;	/* cylinders in file system */
+	int32_t	 fs_old_cpg;	/* cylinders per group */
+	int32_t	 fs_ipg;	/* inodes per group */
+	int32_t	 fs_fpg;	/* blocks per group * fs_frag */
+/* this data must be re-computed after crashes */
+	struct	csum fs_old_cstotal;	/* cylinder summary information */
+/* these fields are cleared at mount time */
+	int8_t	 fs_fmod;	/* super block modified flag */
+	int8_t	 fs_clean;	/* file system is clean flag */
+	int8_t	 fs_ronly;	/* mounted read-only flag */
+	uint8_t	 fs_old_flags;	/* see FS_ flags below */
+	u_char	 fs_fsmnt[MAXMNTLEN];	/* name mounted on */
+	u_char   fs_volname[MAXVOLLEN];	/* volume name */
+	uint64_t fs_swuid;	/* system-wide uid */
+	int32_t	 fs_pad;
+/* these fields retain the current block allocation info */
+	int32_t	 fs_cgrotor;	/* last cg searched (UNUSED) */
+	void 	*fs_ocsp[NOCSPTRS];/* padding; was list of fs_cs buffers */
+	uint8_t *fs_contigdirs;   /* # of contiguously allocated dirs */
+	struct csum *fs_csp;	/* cg summary info buffer for fs_cs */
+	int32_t	*fs_maxcluster;	/* max cluster in each cyl group */
+	u_char	*fs_active;	/* used by snapshots to track fs */
+	int32_t	 fs_old_cpc;	/* cyl per cycle in postbl */
+/* this area is otherwise allocated unless fs_old_flags & FS_FLAGS_UPDATED */
+	int32_t	 fs_maxbsize;	/* maximum blocking factor permitted */
+	int64_t	 fs_sparecon64[17]; /* old rotation block list head */
+	int64_t	 fs_sblockloc;	/* byte offset of standard superblock */
+	struct	csum_total fs_cstotal; /* cylinder summary information */
+	int64_t  fs_time;	/* last time written */
+	int64_t	 fs_size;	/* number of blocks in fs */
+	int64_t	 fs_dsize;	/* number of data blocks in fs */
+	int64_t  fs_csaddr;	/* blk addr of cyl grp summary area */
+	int64_t	 fs_pendingblocks; /* blocks in process of being freed */
+	int32_t	 fs_pendinginodes; /* inodes in process of being freed */
+	int32_t	 fs_snapinum[FSMAXSNAP]; /* list of snapshot inode numbers */
+/* back to stuff that has been around a while */
+	int32_t	 fs_avgfilesize; /* expected average file size */
+	int32_t	 fs_avgfpdir;	 /* expected # of files per directory */
+	int32_t	 fs_save_cgsize; /* save real cg size to use fs_bsize */
+	int32_t	 fs_sparecon32[26]; /* reserved for future constants */
+	uint32_t fs_flags;	    /* see FS_ flags below */
+/* back to stuff that has been around a while (again) */
+	int32_t	 fs_contigsumsize; /* size of cluster summary array */
+	int32_t	 fs_maxsymlinklen; /* max length of an internal symlink */
+	int32_t	 fs_old_inodefmt;  /* format of on-disk inodes */
+	uint64_t fs_maxfilesize;  /* maximum representable file size */
+	int64_t	 fs_qbmask;	   /* ~fs_bmask for use with 64-bit size */
+	int64_t	 fs_qfmask;	   /* ~fs_fmask for use with 64-bit size */
+	int32_t	 fs_state;	   /* validate fs_clean field (UNUSED) */
+	int32_t	 fs_old_postblformat; /* format of positional layout tables */
+	int32_t	 fs_old_nrpos;	/* number of rotational positions */
+	int32_t  fs_spare5[2];	/* old fs_postbloff */
+				/* old fs_rotbloff */
+	int32_t	 fs_magic;	/* magic number */
+};
+.Ed
+.Pp
+Each disk drive contains some number of file systems.
+A file system consists of a number of cylinder groups.
+Each cylinder group has inodes and data.
+.Pp
+A file system is described by its super-block, which in turn
+describes the cylinder groups.
+The super-block is critical data and is replicated in each cylinder
+group to protect against catastrophic loss.
+This is done at file system creation time and the critical super-block
+data does not change, so the copies need not be referenced further
+unless disaster strikes.
+.Pp
+Addresses stored in inodes are capable of addressing fragments
+of `blocks'.
+File system blocks of at most size
+.Dv MAXBSIZE
+can
+be optionally broken into 2, 4, or 8 pieces, each of which is
+addressable; these pieces may be
+.Dv DEV_BSIZE ,
+or some multiple of
+a
+.Dv DEV_BSIZE
+unit.
+.Pp
+Large files consist of exclusively large data blocks.
+To avoid undue wasted disk space, the last data block of a small
+file is allocated as only as many fragments of a large block as
+are necessary.
+The file system format retains only a single pointer to such a
+fragment, which is a piece of a single large block that has been divided.
+The size of such a fragment is determinable from
+information in the inode, using the
+.Fn blksize fs ip lbn
+macro.
+.Pp
+The file system records space availability at the fragment level;
+to determine block availability, aligned fragments are examined.
+.Pp
+The root inode is the root of the file system.
+Inode 0 can't be used for normal purposes and
+historically bad blocks were linked to inode 1,
+thus the root inode is 2 (inode 1 is no longer used for
+this purpose, however numerous dump tapes make this
+assumption, so we are stuck with it).
+.Pp
+The
+.Fa fs_minfree
+element gives the minimum acceptable percentage of file system
+blocks that may be free.
+If the freelist drops below this level
+only the super-user may continue to allocate blocks.
+The
+.Fa fs_minfree
+element
+may be set to 0 if no reserve of free blocks is deemed necessary,
+however severe performance degradations will be observed if the
+file system is run at greater than 90% full; thus the default
+value of
+.Fa fs_minfree
+is 10%.
+.Pp
+Empirically the best trade-off between block fragmentation and
+overall disk utilization at a loading of 90% comes with a
+fragmentation of 8, thus the default fragment size is an eighth
+of the block size.
+.Pp
+The element
+.Fa fs_optim
+specifies whether the file system should try to minimize the time spent
+allocating blocks, or if it should attempt to minimize the space
+fragmentation on the disk.
+If the value of fs_minfree (see above) is less than 10%,
+then the file system defaults to optimizing for space to avoid
+running out of full sized blocks.
+If the value of minfree is greater than or equal to 10%,
+fragmentation is unlikely to be problematical, and
+the file system defaults to optimizing for time.
+.Pp
+.Em Cylinder group related limits :
+Each cylinder keeps track of the availability of blocks at different
+rotational positions, so that sequential blocks can be laid out
+with minimum rotational latency.
+With the default of 8 distinguished
+rotational positions, the resolution of the
+summary information is 2ms for a typical 3600 rpm drive.
+.Pp
+The element
+.Fa fs_rotdelay
+gives the minimum number of milliseconds to initiate
+another disk transfer on the same cylinder.
+It is used in determining the rotationally optimal
+layout for disk blocks within a file;
+the default value for
+.Fa fs_rotdelay
+is 2ms.
+.Pp
+Each file system has a statically allocated number of inodes,
+determined by its size and the desired number of file data bytes per
+inode at the time it was created.  See
+.Xr newfs 8
+for details on how to set this (and other) filesystem parameters.
+By default, the inode allocation strategy is extremely conservative.
+.Pp
+.Dv MINBSIZE
+is the smallest allowable block size.
+With a
+.Dv MINBSIZE
+of 4096
+it is possible to create files of size
+2^32 with only two levels of indirection.
+.Dv MINBSIZE
+must be big enough to hold a cylinder group block,
+thus changes to
+.Pq Fa struct cg
+must keep its size within
+.Dv MINBSIZE .
+Note that super-blocks are never more than size
+.Dv SBSIZE .
+.Pp
+The path name on which the file system is mounted is maintained in
+.Fa fs_fsmnt .
+.Dv MAXMNTLEN
+defines the amount of space allocated in
+the super-block for this name.
+The limit on the amount of summary information per file system
+is defined by
+.Dv MAXCSBUFS .
+For a 4096 byte block size, it is currently parameterized for a
+maximum of two million cylinders.
+.Pp
+Per cylinder group information is summarized in blocks allocated
+from the first cylinder group's data blocks.
+These blocks are read in from
+.Fa fs_csaddr
+(size
+.Fa fs_cssize )
+in addition to the super-block.
+.Pp
+.Sy N.B.:
+.Fn sizeof "struct csum"
+must be a power of two in order for
+the
+.Fn fs_cs
+macro to work.
+.Pp
+The
+.Em "Super-block for a file system" :
+The size of the rotational layout tables
+is limited by the fact that the super-block is of size
+.Dv SBSIZE .
+The size of these tables is
+.Em inversely
+proportional to the block size of the file system.
+The size of the tables is increased when sector sizes are not powers
+of two, as this increases the number of cylinders included before
+the rotational pattern repeats
+.Pq Fa fs_cpc .
+The size of the rotational layout
+tables is derived from the number of bytes remaining in
+.Pq Fa struct fs .
+.Pp
+The number of blocks of data per cylinder group
+is limited because cylinder groups are at most one block.
+The inode and free block tables
+must fit into a single block after deducting space for
+the cylinder group structure
+.Pq Fa struct cg .
+.Pp
+The
+.Em Inode :
+The inode is the focus of all file activity in the
+.Ux
+file system.
+There is a unique inode allocated
+for each active file,
+each current directory, each mounted-on file,
+text file, and the root.
+An inode is `named' by its device/i-number pair.
+For further information, see the include file
+.In ufs/ufs/inode.h .
+.Sh SEE ALSO
+.Xr newfs 8
+.Sh HISTORY
+A super-block structure named filsys appeared in
+.At v6 .
+The file system described in this manual appeared
+in
+.Bx 4.2 .