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+.\"	$NetBSD: dd.1,v 1.41 2026/01/29 01:52:15 uwe Exp $
+.\"
+.\" Copyright (c) 1990, 1993
+.\"	The Regents of the University of California.  All rights reserved.
+.\"
+.\" This code is derived from software contributed to Berkeley by
+.\" Keith Muller of the University of California, San Diego.
+.\"
+.\" Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+.\" modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+.\" are met:
+.\" 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+.\"    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+.\" 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+.\"    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+.\"    documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+.\" 3. Neither the name of the University nor the names of its contributors
+.\"    may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software
+.\"    without specific prior written permission.
+.\"
+.\" THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE REGENTS AND CONTRIBUTORS ``AS IS'' AND
+.\" ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
+.\" IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
+.\" ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE REGENTS OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
+.\" FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
+.\" DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
+.\" OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
+.\" HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
+.\" LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
+.\" OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
+.\" SUCH DAMAGE.
+.\"
+.\"	@(#)dd.1	8.2 (Berkeley) 1/13/94
+.\"
+.Dd January 26, 2026
+.Dt DD 1
+.Os
+.Sh NAME
+.Nm dd
+.Nd convert and copy a file
+.Sh SYNOPSIS
+.Nm
+.Op operand ...
+.Sh DESCRIPTION
+The
+.Nm
+utility copies the standard input to the standard output.
+Input data is read and written in 512-byte blocks.
+If input reads are short, input from multiple reads are aggregated
+to form the output block.
+When finished,
+.Nm
+displays the number of complete and partial input and output blocks
+and truncated input records to the standard error output.
+.Pp
+The following operands are available:
+.Bl -tag -width Cm
+.
+.It Cm bs= Ns Ar n
+Set both input and output block size, superseding the
+.Cm ibs
+and
+.Cm obs
+operands.
+If no conversion values other than
+.Cm noerror ,
+.Cm notrunc
+or
+.Cm sync
+are specified, then each input block is copied to the output as a
+single block without any aggregation of short blocks.
+.
+.It Cm cbs= Ns Ar n
+Set the conversion record size to
+.Ar n
+bytes.
+The conversion record size is required by the record oriented conversion
+values.
+.
+.It Cm count= Ns Ar n
+Copy only
+.Ar n
+input blocks.
+If
+.Ar n
+is zero, copy nothing, after performing any
+.Cm skip Pq Cm iseek
+or
+.Cm seek Pq Cm oseek
+operations.
+.
+.It Cm files= Ns Ar n
+Copy
+.Ar n
+input files before terminating.
+This operand is only applicable when the input device is a tape.
+.
+.It Cm ibs= Ns Ar n
+Set the input block size to
+.Ar n
+bytes instead of the default 512.
+.
+.It Cm if= Ns Ar file
+Read input from
+.Ar file
+instead of the standard input.
+.
+.It Cm iflag= Ns Ar flags
+Use comma-separated
+.Ar flags
+when calling
+.Xr open 2
+for the input file.
+Default value is
+.Ql rdonly .
+See the
+.Sx INPUT AND OUTPUT FLAGS
+section for details.
+.
+.It Cm iseek= Ns Ar n
+Seek on the input file
+.Ar n
+blocks.
+This is synonymous with
+.Cm skip= Ns Ar n .
+.
+.It Cm msgfmt= Ns Ar fmt
+Specify the message format
+.Ar fmt
+to be used when writing information to standard output.
+Possible values are:
+.Bl -tag -width Cm
+.It Cm quiet
+turns off information summary report except for errors and
+.Cm progress .
+.It Cm posix
+default information summary report as specified by POSIX.
+.It Cm human
+default information summary report extended with human-readable
+values.
+.El
+.Pp
+When
+.Ar fmt
+does not correspond to any value given above,
+it contains a string that will be used as format specifier
+for the information summary output.
+Each conversion specification is introduced by the character
+.Ql % .
+The following ones are available:
+.Pp
+.\" cheat and use Ql instead of Li to add a bit more width
+.Bl -tag -width ".Ql b" -offset indent -compact
+.It Li b
+total number of bytes transferred
+.It Li B
+total number of bytes transferred in
+.Xr humanize_number 3
+format
+.It Li e
+speed transfer
+.It Li E
+speed transfer in
+.Xr humanize_number 3
+format
+.It Li i
+number of partial input block(s)
+.It Li I
+number of full input block(s)
+.It Li o
+number of partial output block(s)
+.It Li O
+number of full output block(s)
+.It Li s
+time elapsed since the beginning in
+.Dq seconds.ms
+format
+.Pp
+.It Li p
+number of sparse output blocks
+.It Li t
+number of truncated blocks
+.It Li w
+number of odd-length swab blocks
+.Pp
+.It Li P
+singular/plural of
+.Dq block
+depending on number of sparse blocks
+.It Li T
+singular/plural of
+.Dq block
+depending on number of truncated blocks
+.It Li W
+singular/plural of
+.Dq block
+depending on number of swab blocks
+.El
+.
+.It Cm obs= Ns Ar n
+Set the output block size to
+.Ar n
+bytes instead of the default 512.
+.
+.It Cm of= Ns Ar file
+Write output to
+.Ar file
+instead of the standard output.
+Any regular output file is truncated unless the
+.Cm notrunc
+conversion value is specified.
+If an initial portion of the output file is skipped
+.Po
+see the
+.Cm seek
+operand
+.Pc
+the output file is truncated at that point.
+.
+.It Cm oflag= Ns Ar flags
+Use comma-separated
+.Ar flags
+when calling
+.Xr open 2
+on the output file.
+The default value is
+.Ql creat .
+If the
+.Cm oflag
+operand is specified, the
+.Ql creat
+flag must be explicitly included when writing output to a nonexistent
+file.
+The value is or'ed with
+.Ql rdwr
+for the first
+.Xr open 2
+attempt, then, if that has failed, with
+.Ql wronly
+on the second attempt.
+In both cases,
+.Ql trunc
+is automatically added if none of
+.Cm oseek ,
+.Cm seek ,
+or
+.Cm conv=notrunc
+operands are used.
+See the
+.Sx INPUT AND OUTPUT FLAGS
+section for details.
+.
+.It Cm oseek= Ns Ar n
+Seek on the output file
+.Ar n
+blocks.
+This is synonymous with
+.Cm seek= Ns Ar n .
+.
+.It Cm seek= Ns Ar n
+Seek
+.Ar n
+blocks from the beginning of the output before copying.
+On non-tape devices, an
+.Xr lseek 2
+operation is used.
+Otherwise, existing blocks are read and the data discarded.
+If the user does not have read permission for the tape, it is positioned
+using the tape
+.Xr ioctl 2
+function calls.
+If the seek operation is past the end of file, space from the current
+end of file to the specified offset is filled with blocks of
+.Tn NUL
+bytes.
+.
+.It Cm skip= Ns Ar n
+Skip
+.Ar n
+blocks from the beginning of the input before copying.
+On input which supports seeks, an
+.Xr lseek 2
+operation is used.
+Otherwise, input data is read and discarded.
+For pipes, the correct number of bytes is read.
+For all other devices, the correct number of blocks is read without
+distinguishing between a partial or complete block being read.
+.
+.It Cm progress= Ns Ar n
+Switch on display of progress if
+.Ar n
+is set to any non-zero value.
+This will cause a
+.Ql \&.
+to be printed
+.Pq to the standard error output
+for every
+.Ar n
+full or partial blocks written to the output file.
+.
+.Sm off
+.It Cm conv= Ar value Op Cm \&, Ar value \~ Ar \&...
+.Sm on
+Where
+.Ar value
+is one of the symbols from the following list.
+.Bl -tag -width Cm
+.It Cm ascii , oldascii
+The same as the
+.Cm unblock
+value except that characters are translated from
+.Tn EBCDIC
+to
+.Tn ASCII
+before the
+records are converted.
+.Po
+These values imply
+.Cm unblock
+if the operand
+.Cm cbs
+is also specified.
+.Pc
+There are two conversion maps for
+.Tn ASCII .
+The value
+.Cm ascii
+specifies the recommended one which is compatible with
+.At V .
+The value
+.Cm oldascii
+specifies the one used in historic
+.Tn AT&T
+and
+.Pf pre- Bx 4.3 Reno
+systems.
+.It Cm block
+Treats the input as a sequence of newline or end-of-file terminated variable
+length records independent of input and output block boundaries.
+Any trailing newline character is discarded.
+Each input record is converted to a fixed length output record where the
+length is specified by the
+.Cm cbs
+operand.
+Input records shorter than the conversion record size are padded with spaces.
+Input records longer than the conversion record size are truncated.
+The number of truncated input records, if any, are reported to the standard
+error output at the completion of the copy.
+.It Cm ebcdic , ibm , oldebcdic , oldibm
+The same as the
+.Cm block
+value except that characters are translated from
+.Tn ASCII
+to
+.Tn EBCDIC
+after the
+records are converted.
+.Po
+These values imply
+.Cm block
+if the operand
+.Cm cbs
+is also specified.
+.Pc
+There are four conversion maps for
+.Tn EBCDIC .
+The value
+.Cm ebcdic
+specifies the recommended one which is compatible with
+.At V .
+The value
+.Cm ibm
+is a slightly different mapping, which is compatible with the
+.At V
+.Cm ibm
+value.
+The values
+.Cm oldebcdic
+and
+.Cm oldibm
+are maps used in historic
+.Tn AT&T
+and
+.Pf pre- Bx 4.3 Reno
+systems.
+.It Cm lcase
+Transform uppercase characters into lowercase characters.
+.It Cm noerror
+Do not stop processing on an input error.
+When an input error occurs, a diagnostic message followed by the current
+input and output block counts will be written to the standard error output
+in the same format as the standard completion message.
+If the
+.Cm sync
+conversion is also specified, any missing input data will be replaced
+with
+.Tn NUL
+bytes
+.Pq or with spaces if a block oriented conversion value was specified
+and processed as a normal input buffer.
+If the
+.Cm sync
+conversion is not specified, the input block is omitted from the output.
+On input files which are not tapes or pipes, the file offset
+will be positioned past the block in which the error occurred using
+.Xr lseek 2 .
+.It Cm notrunc
+Do not truncate the output file.
+This will preserve any blocks in the output file not explicitly written
+by
+.Nm .
+The
+.Cm notrunc
+value is not supported for tapes.
+.It Cm osync
+Pad the final output block to the full output block size.
+If the input file is not a multiple of the output block size
+after conversion, this conversion forces the final output block
+to be the same size as preceding blocks for use on devices that require
+regularly sized blocks to be written.
+This option is incompatible with use of the
+.Cm bs= Ns Ar n
+block size specification.
+.It Cm sparse
+If one or more non-final output blocks would consist solely of
+.Tn NUL
+bytes, try to seek the output file by the required space instead of
+filling them with
+.Tn NUL Ap s .
+This results in a sparse file on some file systems.
+.It Cm swab
+Swap every pair of input bytes.
+If an input buffer has an odd number of bytes, the last byte will be
+ignored during swapping.
+.It Cm sync
+Pad every input block to the input buffer size.
+Spaces are used for pad bytes if a block oriented conversion value is
+specified, otherwise
+.Tn NUL
+bytes are used.
+.It Cm ucase
+Transform lowercase characters into uppercase characters.
+.It Cm unblock
+Treats the input as a sequence of fixed length records independent of input
+and output block boundaries.
+The length of the input records is specified by the
+.Cm cbs
+operand.
+Any trailing space characters are discarded and a newline character is
+appended.
+.El
+.El
+.Pp
+Where sizes are specified, a decimal number of bytes is expected.
+Two or more numbers may be separated by an
+.Ql x
+to indicate a product.
+Each number may have one of the following optional suffixes:
+.Pp
+.Bl -column -offset indent ".Ql b" "block"
+.It Li b  Ta block  Ta multiply by 512
+.It Li k  Ta kibi   Ta multiply by 1024 (1 KiB)
+.It Li m  Ta mebi   Ta multiply by 1048576 (1 MiB)
+.It Li g  Ta gibi   Ta multiply by 1073741824 (1 GiB)
+.It Li t  Ta tebi   Ta multiply by 1099511627776 (1 TiB)
+.It Li w  Ta word   Ta multiply by the number of bytes in an integer
+.El
+.Pp
+When finished,
+.Nm
+displays the number of complete and partial input and output blocks,
+truncated input records and odd-length byte-swapping blocks to the
+standard error output.
+A partial input block is one where less than the input block size
+was read.
+A partial output block is one where less than the output block size
+was written.
+Partial output blocks to tape devices are considered fatal errors.
+Otherwise, the rest of the block will be written.
+Partial output blocks to character devices will produce a warning message.
+A truncated input block is one where a variable length record oriented
+conversion value was specified and the input line was too long to
+fit in the conversion record or was not newline terminated.
+.Pp
+Normally, data resulting from input or conversion or both are aggregated
+into output blocks of the specified size.
+After the end of input is reached, any remaining output is written as
+a block.
+This means that the final output block may be shorter than the output
+block size.
+.Pp
+If
+.Nm
+receives a
+.Dv SIGINFO
+signal
+.Po
+see the
+.Ic status
+argument for
+.Xr stty 1
+.Pc ,
+the current input and output block counts will
+be written to the standard error output
+in the same format as the standard completion message.
+If
+.Nm
+receives a
+.Dv SIGINT
+signal, the current input and output block counts will
+be written to the standard error output
+in the same format as the standard completion message and
+.Nm
+will exit.
+.Sh INPUT AND OUTPUT FLAGS
+There are flags valid for input only
+.Pq Cm iflag ,
+for output only
+.Pq Cm oflag ,
+or for either.
+.Pp
+The flags that apply to both input and output are:
+.Pp
+.Bl -tag -width ".Cm directory" -offset indent -compact
+.It Cm alt_io
+Use Alternative I/O.
+.It Cm async
+Use
+.Dv SIGIO
+signaling for I/O.
+.It Cm cloexec
+Set the close-on-exec flag.
+.It Cm direct
+Directly access the data, skipping any caches.
+.It Cm directory
+Not available for
+.Nm .
+.It Cm exlock
+Atomically obtain an exclusive lock.
+.It Cm noctty
+Do not consider the file as a potential controlling tty.
+.It Cm nofollow
+Do not follow symbolic links.
+.It Cm nonblock
+Do not block on open or I/O requests.
+.It Cm nosigpipe
+Return
+.Er EPIPE
+instead of raising
+.Dv SIGPIPE .
+.It Cm shlock
+Atomically obtain a shared lock.
+.It Cm sync
+All I/O will be performed with full synchronization.
+.El
+.Pp
+The flags that apply to only input are:
+.Pp
+.Bl -tag -width ".Cm directory" -offset indent -compact
+.It Cm rdonly
+Set the read-only flag.
+.It Cm rdwr
+Set the read and write flags.
+.It Cm rsync
+Enable read synchronization, if the
+.Cm sync
+option is also set.
+.El
+.Pp
+The flags that apply to only output are:
+.Pp
+.Bl -tag -width ".Cm directory" -offset indent -compact
+.It Cm append
+Append to the output by default.
+.It Cm creat
+Create the output file.
+.It Cm dsync
+Wait for all data to be synchronously written.
+.It Cm excl
+Ensure that output is to a new file.
+.It Cm trunc
+Truncate the output file before writing.
+.It Cm wronly
+Set the write-only flag.
+.El
+.Pp
+See
+.Xr open 2
+and
+.Xr ioctl 2
+for more details.
+.Sh EXIT STATUS
+.Ex -std dd
+.Sh EXAMPLES
+To write a
+.Xr gzip 1
+compressed
+.Nx
+image to a removable drive, with
+.Xr progress 1
+output:
+.Bd -literal -offset indent
+zcat NetBSD-9.2-amd64-install.img.gz | \\
+    progress dd of=/dev/rsd0 bs=1m
+.Ed
+.Pp
+To print summary information in human-readable form:
+.Pp
+.Dl dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/null count=1 msgfmt=human
+.Pp
+To customize the information summary output and print it through
+.Xr unvis 3 :
+.Bd -literal -offset indent
+dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/null count=1 \e
+     msgfmt='speed:%E, in %s seconds\en' 2>&1 | unvis
+.Ed
+.Sh SEE ALSO
+.Xr cp 1 ,
+.Xr mt 1 ,
+.Xr tr 1
+.Sh STANDARDS
+The
+.Nm
+utility is expected to be a superset of the
+.St -p1003.2
+standard.
+The
+.Cm files
+and
+.Cm msgfmt
+operands and the
+.Cm ascii ,
+.Cm ebcdic ,
+.Cm ibm ,
+.Cm oldascii ,
+.Cm oldebcdic
+and
+.Cm oldibm
+values are extensions to the
+.Tn POSIX
+standard.
+.Sh HISTORY
+A
+.Nm
+utility appeared in
+.At v5 .